Flora of fleshy fruits at Nature's Valley, Western Cape, South Africa
In late May 2000, I investigated the vegetation around Nature's Valley (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature%27s_Valley). My search-image was for plants with fleshy fruits.
In the following, I present an observation from iNaturalist as close as possible to Nature's Valley, followed by the clearest photo available of the ripe fruit, followed by my own field-notes from 2000.
Euclea racemosa (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/526223-Euclea-racemosa)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/101251201
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141159256 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/114385330
- Absence of this genus from forest is noteworthy; fairly common on coastal dune, but only one of many spp. of plants in this habitat that have fleshy fruits; in shoot at the time (new leaves yellow-green, not reddish); not in fruit here, in contrast to Agulhas area, where mast-fruiting in early May 2000
Euclea acutifolia (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/585511-Euclea-acutifolia)
https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/16163420
- There are currently no records of this species in iNaturalist, anywhere near Nature's Valley; however, I observed it here, in the fire-free dry scrub of Eriocephalus etc. on rocky slopes at the littoral, at the east end of Nature's Valley beach; extremely sclerophyllous for a member of the Cape Flora, qualifying as truly sclerophyllous according to a standard covering both Australia and southern Africa; I saw only unripe, developing fruits; these fruits were brown and tomentose, unlike the fruits of congeners; I subsequently noticed that one fruit of a herbarium specimen in the Bolus Herbarium had split, suggesting quasi-dehiscence
Euclea crispa crispa (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/599235-Euclea-crispa-crispa)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19505529
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/137525093
- Seen only in post-fire fynbos between the tele tower and Pig's Head; coppicing and already in developing fruit, only six months after fire; so, this seems to be an example of fleshy fruits 'stimulated by fire'.
Diospyros dichrophylla (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/583883-Diospyros-dichrophylla)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/135920247
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/140273510
- Uncommon but present, e.g. on levee of the river in Nature's Valley; in flower and unripe fruit.
Diospyros whyteana (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/541445-Diospyros-whyteana)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/26075262
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/142428174
- Uncommon but present in the understorey of forest; not as consistently present as in comparable forest in Cape Peninsula.
Pterocelastrus tricuspidatus (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/526208-Pterocelastrus-tricuspidatus)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/99099317
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141934955
- Common; in ripening but not yet ripe fruit, so more or less in line with the masting event seen in early May 2000 in the Agulhas area, but delayed by several weeks
Putterlickia pyracantha (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/524315-Putterlickia-pyracantha)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/100003638
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141674995
- Present in relatively low, dry types of vegetation in the area; in shoot now, as well as ripening fruit
Mystroxylum aethiopicum aethiopicum (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?taxon_id=600329)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/80494850
- Common in the area; not a tree, but a shrub, tending to occur in scrub rather than in forest; leaf size and texture similar to that of Pterocelastrus tricuspidatus; in some red fruit
Lauridia tetragona (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/588764-Lauridia-tetragona)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/10844195
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/138112142
- Common in the area, and ubiquitous as part of the lowest woody stratum in forest; grows as a scrambler/liane elsewhere, but not hereabouts; I have yet to see its fruits, or any indication that the species fruits in the low (<0.5 m) form present in thisnarea
Cassine papillosa/peragua/Elaeodendron croceum
- One or more of these closely-related spp. was common in the forests of the area, as recognised by shape and colour of bole; I saw one fairly ripe fruit
Cassine parvifolia (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/581793-Cassine-parvifolia)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/10844781
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/35944238
- Seen only in fynbos thicket on Table Mountain sandstone at the western end of the Otter Trail, where it forms mallee-like large shrubs, regenerating vegetatively after fire
Gymnosporia nemorosa (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/567065-Gymnosporia-nemorosa)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/68324828
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/81168808 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/80917032
- Common shrub in understorey and at edge of forest; spinescent (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/9753647); now in full fruit, the aril (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/62890825 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/29991924) unusually succulent
- Are the 'juvenile leaves' heteroblastically spinescent? https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/78493338
Sideroxylon inerme (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/362175-Sideroxylon-inerme)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/106164008
- Common, but only in coastal situations, not in the main forests of the area; I saw some fine old specimens on the boardwalk near Storms River mouth; I saw only a few fruits
Canthium inerme (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/559528-Canthium-inerme)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/101647332
- Present but neither common nor conspicuous
Apodytes dimidiata (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/489301-Apodytes-dimidiata)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19506204
- Possibly common in the area, but difficult to recognise from bole or foliage; in fruit in the yard of a house in the town near the estuary, where it survives from the original scrub-forest on sand; Crithagra sulphurata (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/558618-Crithagra-sulphurata) interacted with the fruits, perhaps still in the green state.
Olinia ventosa (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/557509-Olinia-ventosa)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19515508
- Present, but I did not notice the species during my visit
Chionanthus foveolatus (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/582167-Chionanthus-foveolatus)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19505915
- Uncommonly seen, but on one occasion I observed the green fruits, which have a distinctive shape
Olea capensis macrocarpa (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?taxon_id=524915)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/38334437
- A large tree with undulate leaves, under giant Afrocarpus falcatus, was probably of this species
Olea europaea cuspidata (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?taxon_id=322082)
- Not seen
Olea exasperata (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/578517-Olea-exasperata)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/76653017
- Present in scrub-forest on coastal dune, where in old flower and some early fruit
Carissa bispinosa (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/337799-Carissa-bispinosa)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19506566
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141355718
- One of the two commonest shrubs, about 2 m high, in the understorey of forest in the area; its spinescence at up to 2 m high seems inexplicable w.r.t. Tragelaphus sylvaticus (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?taxon_id=524158), which does not reach this high; in scattered fruit
Scolopia zeyheri (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/557693-Scolopia-zeyheri)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19504817
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/89876471
- Fairly common in places, spinescent; no fruits seen
Halleria lucida (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/402272-Halleria-lucida)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19523285
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/133667329
- Not generally present in the area, but ?present on the boardwalk at Storms River mouth; currently in flower and green fruit at Kirstenbosch in Cape Town
Burchellia bubalina (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/320155-Burchellia-bubalina)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/68532915
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/90506472
- One plant seen at forest edge at Groot River Bridge, in flower and unripe fruit
Grewia occidentalis (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/334567-Grewia-occidentalis)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/96359703
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/135564598 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/129256231
- Seen only in scrub-forest on dune line at Nature's Valley, where uncommon; the one plant seen was in green fruit
Solanum africanum (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/526198-Solanum-africanum)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/82875775
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/139082793
- Present in littoral vegetation in places, including inland edge of scrub-forest on dune line in Nature's Valley; in flower and fruit, as at Grootbos near Gansbaai just previously
Solanum linnaeanum (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/363523-Solanum-linnaeanum)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/108367175
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/142215854
- Seen only in disturbed site at tele tower on ridgetop above Pig's Head
(iNaturalist shows the presence also of the following spp. of Solanum in the area: https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/594582-Solanum-rigescens and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/133287-Solanum-mauritianum and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/79143-Solanum-sisymbriifolium and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/472816-Solanum-tomentosum and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/326781-Solanum-retroflexum and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/169078-Solanum-pseudocapsicum and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/336677-Solanum-chenopodioides and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/79141-Solanum-nigrum and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/280892-Solanum-aculeatissimum and https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/594574-Solanum-giganteum)
Knowltonia vesicatoria (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/596679-Knowltonia-vesicatoria)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/122705253
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/140374938
- Common in scrub-forest and at forest edges, remarkably robust, although does not reach its potential height owing to a tendency to droop; in late flower and early fruit, the few ripe fruits I saw were clearly smaller than the average for fleshy fruits in this flora
Chironia baccifera (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/426224-Chironia-baccifera)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/68169293
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141383403
- Present in places, possibly only on inland edge of scrub-forest on dune line at Nature's Valley and at littoral fringe at cobble beach near Salt River, where in some old fruit
Cussonia thyrsiflora (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/566831-Cussonia-thyrsiflora)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/566831-Cussonia-thyrsiflora
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/130632925
- Present in coastal scrub-forest and thicket, but not conspicuous
Osteospermum moniliferum (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/404420-Osteospermum-moniliferum)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/20180380
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141441413
- Present but not common; not yet in full flower, certainly not in fruit
Capparis sepiaria (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/340365-Capparis-sepiaria)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/37480736
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/101402494
- Present in places at edge of forest
Searsia crenata (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/593871-Searsia-crenata)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/72712773
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/140304940
- A littoral sp.; generally not fruiting, although one individual had some fruit
Searsia lucida lucida (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/593894-Searsia-lucida)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/10844906
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/137951734
- Common in scrub and scrub-forest; now in full flower, not in fruit
Searsia laevigata (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/493489-Searsia-laevigata)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/67095076
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141137334 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/138534917
- Not seen
Searsia glauca (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/564119-Searsia-glauca)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/99383274
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/142293351
- Not seen
Searsia chirindensis (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/557697-Searsia-chirindensis)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/51445589
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/104695265 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/106433807
- This was my first real encounter with this sp., which is a 'giant shrub', tending to remain multi-stemmed despite reaching as High as respectable trees in these forests; leaves falling during my visit, revealing this to be one of the few winter-deciduous trees in the forest
Allophylus decipiens
- https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/507335-Allophylus-decipiens
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/125135000
Carpobrotus sp. or spp.
- Local, uncommon
Morella quercifolia (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/590286-Morella-quercifolia)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/10845367
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/113410318
- Local, uncommon
Rhoicissus tomentosa (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/566441-Rhoicissus-tomentosa)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/124223881
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/125663796
- Surprisingly common in forest; a few fruits seen which are surprisingly large; 'autumn leaves' frequently seen in the ground in forest; is this sp. deciduous?
Rhoicissus digitata (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/593077-Rhoicissus-digitata)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19495089
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/107577770 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/63627116
- Common in scrub-forest, scrub, and even low vegetation, by always in fire-free areas; in some fruit
Kedrostis nana (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/431200-Kedrostis-nana)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/76078004
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/95597952
- Fairly common in certain types of forest; an unripe fruit seen
Zehneria scabra (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/607043-Zehneria-scabra)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/140774864
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/39361625
- Not clearly identified
Cassytha ciliolata (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/461729-Cassytha-ciliolata)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/10838731
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141975744
- Uncommon, absent from forest
Colpoon compressum (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/527438-Colpoon-compressum)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/113724457
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/142212938
- Local, more in fynbos than in fire-free vegetation
Thesium fragile (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/1180365-Thesium-fragile)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/70239462
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/89313909
- Local, littoral
Viscum obscurum (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/596023-Viscum-obscurum)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/37375339
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/115874041
- Abundant and conspicuous on a surprisingly great range of hosts; in fruit
Viscum sp. indet.
- Parasitic on Virgilia, also in fruit; seems different from V. obscurum, butnI cannot identify it from Polhill and Wiens
Viscum aff capense
- Rare (one plant seen somewhere in the area)
Afrocarpus falcatus (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/136323-Afrocarpus-falcatus)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/125885391
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/130379387 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/130615228
- Common; a juvenile in early fruit in Nature's Valley settlement, just as a similar-size small tree was in early June 2000 at Rondebosch Library, Cape Town
Podocarpus latifolius (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/132930-Podocarpus-latifolius)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/19514438
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/114681901 and https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/114673775
- Present in the area (trees labelled in Tsitsikamma National Park), but not clearly observed
Zantedeschia aethiopica (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/56006-Zantedeschia-aethiopica)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/20180081
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/140780968
- Restricted to certain microhabitats, e.g. wind-sheltered little gullies at the littoral; no flowers or fruits seen
Chasmanthe aethiopica (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/361348-Chasmanthe-aethiopica)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/82875855
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141914044
- Occurs mainly at the littoral, at the edge of the wind-shorn scrub
Asparagus aethiopicus (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/75603-Asparagus-aethiopicus)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/57047325
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/140872840
- One of the common lianes in the area, e.g. in scrub-forest and at the edge of forest; in full flower, with early fruits only in dry sites, viz. in Eriocephalus scrub on rocky littoral slope
Asparagus setaceus (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/75604-Asparagus-setaceus)
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/77262593
- https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/133174542
- One of the commonest plants in the lowest stratum of forest; no flowers or fruits (also see comment below)
Asparagus asparagoides (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/64107-Asparagus-asparagoides)
Comentários
Do you realize that you can do this:
https://www.inaturalist.org/check_lists/4383583-Survey-of-Fleshy-Fruits
@tonyrebelo Many thanks for the guidance. I do not yet fully understand, but please keep nudging me...
have a checklist?
on iNaturalist: find the place (do a search - select the place tab)
open the place (click)
at the bottom left click view checklists
at the bottom right, click other checklists
click create a new checklist.
add name and details
save
batch upload (top right) a species list.
save - fix any ambiguities or synonyms.
done.
ASPARAGUS SETACEUS:
On 10 July 2000, I examined a specimen of this species in a suburban garden in Fresnaye, Cape Town.
In green and some ripe fruit, the fruits borne on the 'leaves', turning directly from green to dark dull purple (matt, not glossy).
The fruits are inconspicuous, and there is no pre-ripe display.
The fruit is very succulent when ripe; I crushed one on the paper of my notebook, producing juice and a stain, which now, 22 years later, is pale, dull brown. The odour of the crushed ripe fruit is 'nasty-weedy', not appetising.
The fruit is 5 X 6.5 mm, which smaller than those of various congeners. There is a single seed, round and smooth, with diameter 4 mm.
@tonyrebelo @jeremygilmore
Solanum guineense (https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/594576-Solanum-guineense) is just the kind of plant that interests me, so I am surprised that I cannot recall ever having heard of it before.
Could you please tell me something about its habitat and niche? Given that all spp. of Solanum tend to be 'weedy' or ruderal, how would S. guineense have fit in before European (or even Khoi-Khoi) arrival? If it depends on disturbance, what kind of disturbance? Ashbeds after wildfire? Dung (e.g of elephant, or the middens of hook-lipped rhino)? Cleared earth? Windblown sand? Alluvia? Heuweltjies? Bushclumps of Olea/Sideroxylon/Euclea?
There are many congeners in the southern part of Western Australia (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations?place_id=6827&taxon_id=50641&view=species), but the only species emulating S. guineense in being restricted to the mediterranean-type climate is https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/947933-Solanum-symonii.
Not a clue: I dont think I ever remember seeing a ripe fruit on it.
Solanum guineense is odd in that is doesn't seem very defined by its habitat throughout its range. From Cape Town to the Piketberg you could say it occupies the extreme coast, and the sandy flats and hills (Strandveld & Renosterveld) and thus is found exclusively on these deep sands along the West Coast. It does not occur in those rocky mountains just to the East. However it doesn't follow this very strictly the more North you go. Then, as you go East from Cape Town it almost always hugs the extreme coast again, much like on the Cape Peninsula. From there it slowly starts to go more inland and by the time you reach the Garden Route it is far inland over the big mountains. I can't say what floats its boat - it likes Strandveld and the coast where fire is rare, and when it does get fire in Renosterveld it just seems to cope with it - so fire isn't exactly a major event for the species. I can't say it loves deep sands because it likes the southwestern cape mountains and I can't say it loves the mountains because it likes the deep West Coast sands! It's never very common; rather just a plant here and there and so not weedy at all (multi-stemmed from the base though). Often in very dry areas, but also often in estuaries. I wonder if its large fruit are eaten by buck?
https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA00382353_2316
One of the oddest plants with fleshy fruits in this flora is Halleria. This is partly because the family to which it belongs, namely Stilbaceae, is one of the oddest elements in the Cape Flora.
Halleria, and the family Stilbaceae, transcends the Cape Flora by extending to tropical Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, and certain islands in the Indian Ocean.
Halleria is the only genus of Stilbaceae adapted to seed-dispersal by birds, most of this family in the Cape Flora being dispersed and sown by ants (https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/AJA00382353_2316).
What is particularly odd about Halleria is that its flowers are far more conspicuous than its fruits.
In the southwestern parts of South Africa, a basic dichotomy in the woody flora is between a) plants with conspicuous (nectariferous, bird-attracting) flowers and inconspicuous (non-fleshy) fruits, and b) plants with inconspicuous flowers (pollinated by small insects) and conspicuous, bird-attracting fleshy fruits. The first category, a), is typified by proteas and ericas, whereas the second, b), is typified by Ebenaceae.
Halleria inverts this pattern, by having bright-hued flowers, and fruits that are extremely inconspicuous despite being attractive to birds.
The inconspicuousness of the fruits is because a) the plants are cauliflorous, b) the fruits are borne in small numbers, c) there is no pre-ripe display, d) the ripe colour is merely a matt brown, and e) the fruits are eaten immediately.
http://pza.sanbi.org/halleria-lucida
There are quite a number of Solanum guineense on the Tygerberg which is Shale Renosterveld. They tend to grow in between clumps of other tallish shrubs (Lycium, Searsias, Asparagus retrofractus etc) especially in the kloofs and little ravines. We do have a lot of porcupines on the hills. I can find out more if necessary.
@venturefoth Dear Hedi, many thanks for your helpful comment. Please do share with us anything you can find out about the ecology of this species in the Tygerberg Hills. If it tends to occur in the matrix of low shrubs, and not in the clumps of taller plants (most spp. of which bear fleshy fruits), this seems to suggest that S. guineense is not sown by birds (which would tend to defecate from perches). However, it is also the case that the fruit of S. guineense differs from those of congeners, e.g. Solanum incanum, that are eaten mainly by ungulates. The latter tend to have relatively large, durable fruits with thick rinds (https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/136902244). Solanum incanum is so toxic that ungulates do not eat the foliage (https://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/weeds/key/weeds/Media/Html/Solanum_incanum_(Sodom_Apple).htm), but gazelles and the ostrich do eat the ripe fruits.
Solanum incanum hardly reaches the southwestern Cape, but Solanum linnaeanum, common there, is closely-related and ecologically similar (i.e. probably dispersed by mammals rather than birds).
It is intriguing that S. incanum has been domesticated in Africa, producing a local form of 'eggplant' (http://www.flora.sa.gov.au/efsa/lucid/Solanaceae/Solanum%20species/key/Australian%20Solanum%20species/Media/Html/Solanum_melongena.htm).
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7499278/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342578063_Seed_dispersal_by_ungulates_in_the_point_calimere_wildlife_sanctuary_A_scientific_and_perspective_analysis
https://purews.inbo.be/ws/portalfiles/portal/279793/166595.pdf
https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-03375448/document
https://bmcecol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12898-020-00317-3
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jvs.12418
https://pza.sanbi.org/burchellia-bubalina#:~:text=In%20early%20spring%20to%20mid,distinctive%20horn%2Dlike%20calyx%20lobes.
https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/141097735
Nigel Ainsworth supplied the following information on the fruits of Osteospermum moniliferum moniliferum, in Australia where the plant is invasive.
Fresh mass (average) of ripe fruit 0.265 g
Dry mass (average) of ripe fruit 0.123 g
Water as an average percentage of whole ripe fruit including seed 53.8%
Where is central Africa?
@tonyrebelo
I have scrapped my comment, because the important points can be found in https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/55/12/1053/407128?login=false.
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